We have all heard of the Black Death and how it scythed its way through England and the rest of Europe in the late 1340s, and we hear that a third or perhaps even half of the entire English population died in this terrible pandemic. However the numbers are so vast that the victims become little more than statistics. They blur into a kind of unreality, a mute testimony to a catastrophe beyond imagination or comprehension. The Black Death in England aims to rectify this by giving names to some of the people who died in the fourteenth-century epidemics of the Plague Years and recognises those who lived through it, recreating something of their lives and what they went through.
Despite the vast amount of work written and published about London, there has never before been a full-length book covering the history of that part of the Thames Valley before the arrival of the Romans. Beginning in the Cretaceous Era, which ended 66 million years ago, Prehistoric London examines the geology of this part of Britain and explains why this particular section of the Thames proved to be the ideal location for a city. It describes, too, the animals and people who were attracted to the area by the conditions there. From the time of the dinosaurs, through to the Iron Age and the Roman invasion in 43 AD, this is a comprehensive account of London before London. It is the story of the land, and those who dwelt there, before anybody had thought of founding a city on the banks of the Thames. In addition to being a history book, though, Prehistoric London is also a lively guidebook which explains how to explore modern London and find such things as Iron Age hillforts and a site where anybody can dig sharks' teeth from the sand of a 55-million-year-old seabed. This book will reveal the backstory of London and show readers what was happening in the capital long before a single stone was laid of the city we know today.
As Anthony Tucker-Jones shows in this highly illustrated, wide-ranging history, for most of the Cold War the tank retained its pre-eminence on the battlefield. The Arab-Israeli wars witnessed some of the biggest tank battles of all time, and tanks played key roles in conflicts in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan as well as in the Iran-Iraq War and the wars fought between India and Pakistan. But then in the mid-1960s anti-tank weapons became ever deadlier and the Mechanised Infantry Fighting Vehicle (MIFV), which was designed to support infantry and fight tanks, emerged and the heyday of the tank was over. Chapters cover each major phase in the evolution of the tank and of tank warfare during the period, from the battles fought in the late 1940s and 1950s with Second World War armoured vehicles like the T-34 and the Sherman, through to the designs common in the 1960s and 1970s like the T-55, Centurion, Challenger and M60 Patton, to the confrontation between the M1 Abrams and the T-72 during the Gulf War in 1991. Technical and design developments are important elements throughout the story, but so are dramatic changes in tactics and armaments which mean the tank has an increasingly uncertain role in modern warfare.
A graphic study of military and military revolution in the pivotal 17th century in the context of the Thirty Years War, shown by dramatic battle scenes, personal, heroic and tragic for all levels of society, and all strikingly brought to life. The first 'world war' in Europe was a global conflict, showing that early modern war, despite the Enlightenment argument which contrasts medieval military brutality with modern mores, early modern warfare was full of horror and innocent suffering, reinforced modern weaponry and state support. With striking quotes from commanders to foot-soldiers, readers feel 'involved' and the story moves from battle-field tactics to strategy, Grand Strategy and international relations. Here is the modern military state at the heart of the 17th century military evolution and revolution leading to modern and contemporary international warfare.
All monarchs have need of those to whom they give their trust. Never was this more essential than for the kings of Medieval England. From the Norman victory of 1066 to the bloody demise of Richard III in 1485, the stings and arrows of royal life bred relentless vigilance, distrust, and paranoia. This volume covers a period of 419 years. It starts with a bloody battle and ends with a bloody battle. To understand the lives and actions of court favourites, one must also know about the monarchs they served. In this book, you will read short biographies of each monarch, followed by a few of those courtiers to whom they gave their trust, not always deserved. You will read about the vicious actions of William the Conqueror, who, despite his victory on Senlac Hill, took five years to subdue the English, but who could not have achieved his victories without trusted lieutenants like William Fitz Osbern. How Stephen's innate indolence almost lost him England, had it not been for William of Ypres, and how Matilda's half-brother, Robert of Gloucester, kept her hopes of finally sitting on the throne bequeathed to her by her father Henry I alive. The Plantagenet kings changed the face of England, often bringing riches to those who hitched their wagons to the monarchy. Men still revered today, like William Marshal, known as The Greatest Knight, who faithfully served five kings. Various younger brothers held high church offices. Not all served to enrich themselves. John Beauchamp became a favourite of Edward III but was not overtly mercenary. The Wars of the Roses left England virtually bankrupt. The favourites on either side, the Lancastrian Somersets and the Yorkist Nevilles, gained enormous wealth and power, determined to fight to the death. The death that ended it was Richard III's on 22nd August 1485, when Henry Tudor grabbed the throne, and the Tudor Age began.
Major Malcolm 'The Bobber' Robertson OBE MC had been profoundly affected by his service in the First World War at Ypres and on the Somme, and prayed that the boys of Sunnyside, the Winchester College house that he ran, would be spared the like. By 1938, he knew that war was coming again, and as each set of boys left he tried to follow their fortunes and to support them and their families as best he could. The resulting correspondence between The Bobber and former pupils in every theatre of war, as well as to and from their parents and siblings, forms a precious and unique record of the impact of the Second World War on the Winchester community. Together with photographs, diaries, and memoirs from almost all the forty boys who sat down with The Bobber for the 1938 house photograph, their letters provide us with a vivid depiction of the wartime careers of the boys, for whom Robertson felt a huge personal responsibility. In this magnificent book these sources reveal the boys' doubts, successes, boredom, captures, narrow escapes, loves, lifechanging wounds, and - in the case of exactly one in four of them - their deaths. A Noble Company is an ambitious project which gives the reader an inspiring insight into these young men's wartime experiences.
Seventy years ago, the Nuremberg Trials were in full swing in Germany. In the dock were the leaders of the Nazi regime and most eventually received their just desserts. But what happened to the other war criminals?In June 1946, Lord Russell of Liverpool became Deputy Judge Advocate and legal adviser to the Commander in Chief for the British Army of the Rhine in respect of all trials held by British Military Courts of German war criminals. He later wrote;'At the outbreak of the Second World War, the treatment of prisoners was governed by the Geneva Prisoner of War Convention of 1929, the Preamble of which stated that the aim of the signatories was to alleviate the conditions of prisoners of war. 'During the war, however, the provisions of the Convention were repeatedly disregarded by Germany. Prisoners were subjected to brutality and ill-treatment, employed on prohibited and dangerous work, handed over to the SD for "special treatment" in pursuance of Hitler's Commando Order, lynched in the streets by German civilians, sent to concentration camps, shot on recapture after escaping, and even massacred after they had laid down their arms and surrendered.'Tens of thousands of Allied prisoners of war died at the hands of the Nazis and their Italian allies. This book is for them - lest we forget.
Assassination has been a political and military tool for thousands of years. In the view of many generals and emperors, it was cheaper and more effective than assembling an army and pitching soldiers into combat with the enemy - when the result was never clear cut or easy to achieve. The twentieth century was, perhaps more than any other period, an era of military, political and social assassinations. Their effect was invariably huge, world-changing in some instances. From the killing of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914 to the murder of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948, from the death of John Lennon to the assassination of men like President Kennedy and Martin Luther King, the assassin's bombs, bullets, and knives cut a swathe across modern society. 'Assassinations that Shaped the Twentieth Century' logs and describes many of the more notable killings. It places the assassinations in context, charting their effect and significance. The book also looks at 'failed' assassination attempts and at killings that were planned but never carried out. Written in Phil Carradice's easy and elegant style, the book is thoroughly researched and presented in a logical manner. It is an essential addition to the bookshelves of anyone with an interest in twentieth-century history.
'The infantryman always bears the brunt' according to Field-Marshal Wavell in 1945. The 'Poor Bloody Infantry,' 'The Grunts on the Ground,' the infantry have often been seen as the humble, indeed shunned, relations of others, from cavalry to tanks. This book is their story, one from the dawn of human conflict to the present day, a study that looks round the world to consider fighting, weaponry, recruitment, contexts and impact. Infantry as the shock of assault as well as firepower, as the force in state-to-state conflict and in civil warfare, in symmetrical and asymmetrical warfare, are considered, as are the different accounts of development that are offered. Central to the military and to combat, infantry has also served many non-combat roles, notably as the arm of government. Indeed, infantry can be crucial to political history and nation-building, from coups to iconic battles
Border Battles describes the events which took place on the battlefields of the Anglo-Scottish Wars, 1018-1513. Author Chris Peers links these with a historical narrative of the campaigns, the political situation which gave rise to them and the geographical factors which shaped them. Included are the two dramatic battles at Alnwick in 1093 & 1174 which highlighted the superiority of Anglo-Norman cavalry, the little known battle of Carham, battles at Berwick on Tweed - the most fought over town in Britain - and Flodden, the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought in the region between the two warring kingdoms, among others. A chapter is also given to the castles built during this period to defend Northumberland against Scottish incursions, which remain important features in the landscape, discussing the general principles of medieval defensive structures as well as the specific strategic situation, especially at Bamborough, Warkworth, Alnwick and Chillingham castles. A complementary volume to The Highland Battles (2020) and Clan Battles (2023), each chapter concludes with a guide to visiting the sites, and the book will be illustrated with photographs of both the featured battlefields and other notable sites of interest.
Have you ever played a video game and wondered how it was made? Do you have an idea for a game but don't know how to create it? Maybe you're curious about the skills needed to land a job as a video games developer?This book breaks down the tools and techniques behind making games, providing practical advice to help you create experiences that grab players and transport them to worlds of mystery and adventure. Packed with examples and tips, Designing Video Games details each step in the process:* Thinking up and evaluating ideas. * Turning ideas into designs. * Understanding your audience. * Creating game content. * Using psychological techniques. * Fixing common development problems. * Polishing, marketing, and releasing games. Yes, you absolutely have what it takes to make great video games. This book will show you how.
The First Witches: Women of Power in the Classical World takes you on a journey into the world of Classical literature, from the adventurous Homeric epic of the Odyssey to the grim warfare of Lucan's De Bello Civili. In doing so, you will be introduced to a handful of powerful women who will later be labelled as "witches". The chapters focus upon two specific groups of women from the Graeco-Roman world: the divine Hecate and the formidable yet beautiful Circe, who first feature in Greek texts, and the nefarious Thessalian witches and Erictho, who become marked antagonists in Roman literature. Both Hecate and Circe are fundamentally divine, yet early in their mythologies, they harbour characteristics that will become distinct tropes of witchcraft from being associated with the underworld, lunar lore and dangerous transformative powers. With the onset of increased social tensions in the late Roman Republican to early imperial periods, these divine women become increasingly more demonised within the literature, culminating in Hecate becoming a consort for witches and Circe a seductress and the epitome of the femme fatale. Simultaneous to these representations, Roman writers adopted a stock character within prose and verse of the hag-witch who was shocking in both appearance and character, displaying many elements of moral turpitude and a disturbing penchant for bestial activities such as cannibalism and the kidnapping and killing of infants. Thus, the hag-witch, most commonly associated with the world of the modern witch hunts and within the pages of modern fairy tale, was born. This book, therefore, provides a readable overview of how the Western witch originated. So profound was the impact of the classical witch upon Western thought and literature that she even lives on today as a prototype of the gruesome woman found in folklore, horror stories and movies. This is why the studying and reading of classical works is so relevant today as it was for our forebears since the literature contains the very ingredients that help to captivate our imaginations and our fears. The authors of the literature and the characters within it will continue to serve as powerful reminders of how the Western world came to be.
In London, as the eighteenth century began, there had been significant recovery from the Great Plague and the Great Fire in the past three decades. Tracts of the city had been rebuilt and the population was growing once more. The city, largely through England's success in battles at sea, was taking centre stage in Europe and, critically, through taking the lion's share of the lands of the New World of America and snatching slave trading rights in West Africa. England had great wealth at its fingertips and London was at the heart of all of it. People flocked to the capital to seek their fortune. Wealthy people invested in the new companies exploiting Africa or set up manufacturing concerns in the city. They moved into large houses in the wealthy area of the Strand and spread into other prosperous areas such as Cavendish Place. Their houses were staffed by teams of domestic servants. At the other end of the income scale, people were leaving their rural homes where traditional jobs as labourers and in the fields were drying up, hoping to make a living in London. So many people arrived searching for work that there were too few jobs and many opportunities to be exploited. With no safety net, they had to resort to desperate measures to survive. Babies were abandoned on the mounds of animal and human waste which towered over the overcrowded alleys. Some were dead, others dying. People walked past this tragic sight every day and chose to do nothing. One man, however, a ship-builder from Lyme, decided on a plan to save them. The vilification of illegitimate babies and the general disdain for the poor meant that it took Thomas Coram years to garner enough support to get his plan to save the babies off the ground. However, when, in 1739, he was able to found England's first institution for abandoned and illegitimate babies, it became a place for London's high society to be seen. Royalty, politicians and scientists joined the crowds of people who went to the London Foundling Hospital to see the works of Hogarth or listen to Handel perform. It became the most fashionable charity in London. But even this could not stop the babies dying.
Discover the untold stories of Africa's warrior queens, rulers who defied empires, led armies, and shaped the course of history. In African Women of the Ancient World, journey through millennia to uncover the lives of powerful women like Queen Amanirenas, who challenged the might of Rome, Queen Nzinga Mbande, who fought against the Portuguese slave trade, and Dahia al-Kahina, who defended North Africa from Arab invasion. These extraordinary women, often overshadowed by their male counterparts, ruled with unparalleled strategy, pride, and ferocity, navigating their nations through intense battles and radical changes. From the great Pharaoh Hatshepsut of Egypt to Queen Makeda of Sheba, whose legacy is intertwined with the legends of King Solomon, these rulers are the unsung champions of ancient history. In this volume Clark brings these remarkable figures to life, drawing from excellent sources to illuminate their conquests and reigns. A treasure trove for scholars and history enthusiasts alike, this book offers a compelling exploration of the women who fiercely defended their lands and people, and whose stories are finally being told.
This is a story of 'ordinary' people - ordinary people who were caught up in the cataclysm of events in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s. A discovery of letters that had been carefully kept for decades since that time led to the uncovering of a family story that took the author on a journey in the footsteps of her husband's grandparents through Germany, Belgium, and France. Hermann Hartog (1887-1942) was a Jewish teacher in the north-west of Germany at a time of increasing anti-Semitism. He and his wife, Henny (1897-1942) recognised that Germany was becoming an unsafe place for Jews and sent their daughters to England for safety. As a leader of his community, Hermann stayed for as long as he could. After 'Kristallnacht' in November 1938, Hermann was arrested with other Jewish men and sent to the concentration camp at Sachsenhausen. He was later released on condition that he would leave the country. Hermann and Henny fled Germany for Brussels, but when Belgium was invaded in 1940 they were sent to Paris, and then found refuge in a village in the south-west of France. Here, 'ordinary' people gave them shelter, work and friendship - and shared their lives during the dark days of 1941 and 1942. When French police - acting on the orders of the Vichy government and the Nazi occupiers of France - arrested Hermann and Henny, it was part of a round-up of Jews to deport them for extermination. After a long journey, they were murdered in Auschwitz in September 1942. An active memory of the Hartog family lives on. In France and Germany, 'ordinary' people remember their names, commemorate their legacy, and work to build communities where tolerance, acceptance, and friendship can thrive.
People have always imagined that human history has an end point. The way this has been imagined has varied according to time, place, and culture. In medieval England people lived in expectation of the Biblical Day of Judgment, when the world would end and people would be judged by God according to their sins. In art and literature from the early modern period onwards, the most frightening scenes from the Bible were depicted to warn people of the dangers of sin. As the power of the church waned and society became more secular, "new" threats emerged such as pandemics and otherworldly beings which threatened to destroy humanity, and whose tales were told time and again in popular culture. This book examines stories of the apocalypse in popular culture from the medieval period to the twenty-first century; it is a history of the end of the world.
Operation Market Garden - the Allied airborne invasion of German-occupied Holland in September 1944 - is one of the most famous and controversial Allied failures of the Second World War. Many books have been written on the subject seeking to explain the defeat. Historians have generally focused on the mistakes made by senior commanders as they organized the operation. The choice of landing zones has been criticized, as has the structure of the airlift plan. But little attention has been paid to the influence that combat doctrine and training had upon the relative performance of the forces involved. And it is this aspect that Aaron Bates emphasizes in this perceptive, closely argued and absorbing re-evaluation of the battle. As he describes each phase of the fighting he shows how German training, which gave their units a high degree of independence of action, better equipped them to cope with the confusion created by the surprise Allied attack. In contrast, the British forces were hampered by their rigid and centralized approach which made it more difficult for them to adapt to the chaotic situation. Aaron Bates's thought-provoking study sheds fresh light on the course of the fighting around Arnhem and should lead to a deeper understanding of one of the most remarkable episodes in the final stage of the Second World War in western Europe.
On 26 May 1940, the Admiralty issued the directive for Operation Dynamo, aiming to rescue the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) from Dunkirk. Initially, they expected to evacuate only 45,000 men within two days, anticipating that enemy action would soon end the operation. However, the outcome exceeded all expectations. Between 26 May and 4 June 1940, a fleet of naval and civilian vessels evacuated 338,682 men, a feat considered impossible. The scale of this success prompted The New York Times to declare Dunkirk a word of reverence. The British Army's Quartermaster-General called it "unprecedented in the history of war."The Dunkirk evacuation has been immortalized in numerous books and films, becoming one of the defining moments of British history. Today, many artifacts from the operation remain, including shipwrecks, rifles, and photographs, each serving as poignant reminders of the event. Through 100 objects, this book tells the powerful story of The Miracle of Dunkirk, bringing the past to life by showcasing these historical remnants and memorials.
Too often historical writing on the Russian War of 1854-56 focuses narrowly on the land campaign fought in the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea. The wider war waged at sea by the British and French navies against the Russians is ignored. The allied navies aimed to strike at Russian interests anywhere in the world where naval force could be brought to bear and as a result campaigns were waged in the Baltic, the Black Sea, the White Sea, on the Russian Pacific coast and in the Sea of Azoff. Yet it is the land campaign in the Crimea that shapes our understanding of events. In this graphic and original study, Peter Duckers seeks to set the record straight. He shows how these neglected naval campaigns were remarkably successful, in contrast to the wretched failures that beset the British army on land. Allied warships ranged across Russian waters sinking shipping, disrupting trade, raiding ports, bombarding fortresses, destroying vast quantities of stores and shelling coastal towns. The scale and intensity of the naval operations embarked upon during the war are astonishing, and little appreciated, and this new book offers the first overall survey of them.
This is the eighth in Christina Holstein's masterly series of Battleground books on the Verdun area during the Great War, following the usual method of narrative to set the scene accompanied by detailed tours. Christina brings to bear her outstanding knowledge of the ground and her deep understanding of the military issues that faced both sides, aided by her ability to read both French and German sources. The six tours, expanding and developing the narrative chapters, and taking up over 70 per cent of the book, are richly illustrated and the whole is notably well mappedThe book focuses on the little-known fighting in the Verdun area in the first weeks of the First World War and the German attempts to overcome that powerful, entrenched camp without a frontal attack. Beginning with the devastating Battle of the Frontiers on 22 August 1914, the author follows the French retreat to the Marne, where their desperate resistance in the Revigny Gap and at Vaux-Marie Farm prevented a breakthrough, whilst Fort Troyon's refusal to surrender to punishing bombardment stopped a concurrent attack on the French rear. In a second attempt two weeks later, the Germans captured the important town of St Mihiel and established a bridgehead on the River Meuse but got no further; Verdun remained in French hands. Fighting stopped and there was little movement until the start of the Battle of Verdun. Launched on 21 February 1916 to bring the war to an end, it quickly bogged down and three hundred days later the French declared victory over the third and final German assault on Verdun.
Pershing's aim had always been to fight the Germans with an independent American Army (the AEF, the American Expeditionary Forces) instead of dividing his divisions between the allies. When the Germans launched the first attack of their Spring Offensives on 21 March 1918, he was still far away from the creation of this independent army. During the first three months of 1918 only a few divisions could be considered as available for immediate action. On 26 March 1918 Foch was selected as the Supreme Allied Commander. Two days later, to solve immediate allied manpower problems and to check the German assault, General Pershing temporarily placed all American forces at the disposal of Supremo Foch. It was agreed that the availability of American troops would only last so long as was needed to check the German advance. This book deals with three lesser known battles fought by five divisions of the AEF that took place in the Champagne/Marne Region between the City of Reims and the Argonne Forest. The narrative includes actions of the 2nd, 36th, 42nd, 92nd and the 93rd Divisions. The latter two were made up of African-American troops. The five tours are ideal for visitors who have a few hours to spare coming from or going to the St. Mihiel, Meuse-Argonne and Verdun battlefields from one of Paris's airports. They cover a lesser known area and each tour will not take more than a few hours. The starting points are all situated a little north of the A4, the Paris-Metz motorway. The tours also bridge the gap between the better known Chemin des Dames and Meuse-Argonne battlefields.
The Nazi Connection details Frederick William Winterbotham's work as Chief of the Air Intelligence Department in the British Secret Intelligence Service before World War II. Tasked with gathering intelligence on military aviation in potential adversary nations, Winterbotham focused on Germany, visiting the country multiple times as a civilian Air Ministry official. His apparent sympathy for Nazi ideology allowed him to gather vital information on Germany's rearmament plans, while building relationships with high-ranking Nazis. Winterbotham was welcomed by top Nazi officials, including Alfred Rosenberg, and even met Hitler, Hess, and Göring. During his visits, Winterbotham learned about Hitler's plans to invade the Soviet Union and gained insights into Germany's military preparations, including the emerging concept of blitzkrieg. Despite this critical intelligence, convincing British leaders to heed these warnings proved difficult. Winterbotham's predictions were dismissed until Germany's military aggression became undeniable. The Nazi Connection explores the complex web of espionage and deception surrounding Winterbotham's mission. It questions how different the course of history might have been if Britain had acted on Winterbotham's intelligence about Nazi Germany's intentions. This story of missed opportunities and high-stakes intelligence offers a fascinating look into the prelude to World War II.
The Tokyo Sixteen tells the gripping story of the sixteen pilots who took part in the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo in April 1942. The book follows their personal journeys, from their diverse backgrounds and motivations for joining the military to their daring participation in one of WWII's most audacious missions. It begins with a deep dive into each pilot's life before the war, highlighting their unique aspirations and shared sense of duty. The narrative then shifts to the intense and secretive training required to launch B-25 bombers from an aircraft carrier, a technical feat that had never been attempted before. The heart of the book focuses on the raid itself, capturing the pilots' courage as they flew into enemy territory, bombed Tokyo, and then faced perilous escapes. Personal stories of bravery, survival, and the physical and mental toll of the mission form a powerful narrative throughout. The aftermath of the raid is no less compelling, with pilots crashing in enemy territory or narrowly escaping capture. The book concludes by reflecting on the lasting legacy of the Doolittle Raiders, celebrating their heroism and the enduring impact of their bravery. The Tokyo Sixteen is a tribute to the strength of the human spirit in extreme circumstances.
Comic-operetta stage set, or ghost town haunted by the walking dead - Sigmaringen still fascinates long after its collapse at the end of the Second World War. This enclave of French Vichy officials and fascists on German soil - refugees and hostages maintained at the Nazis' pleasure - played out the last residue of French collaborationism in the closing months of the war, presided over by the inert figurehead of Marshal Pétain, against the fairytale backdrop of Sigmaringen Castle. No single English-language history of the Sigmaringen enclave exists, yet it brought together some of the most colourful and controversial collaborationists, from the militant French SS officer Joseph Darnand to the delirious writer Louis-Ferdinand Céline, in a petri dish for the last samples of the collaborationism that had infected France and laid her low. Vichy's Last Castle brings together contemporary documents, eye-witness reports, diplomatic communiques and protests, and personal chronicles, alongside post-war analyses, war crimes trials, apologetics and memoirs, to provide a complete picture of the Sigmaringen enclave, from daily life to political chicanery. From the vain, formal protests of Marshal Pétain to the hallucinatory stream-of-consciousness of Céline, the book draws on contemporary photographs as well as texts to encapsulate this bizarre milieu, where the rank-and-file starved and suffered, while the elite played and plotted their tragicomic endgame, in a sublimely appropriate Wagnerian setting.
On 6 April 1941, Nazi Germany, along with Italy and Hungary, invaded Yugoslavia after the overthrow of the Yugoslav regent, Prince Paul. Hitler sought to secure the right flank for his upcoming invasion of the USSR and assist Mussolini, who had failed to conquer Greece. The German attack was swift, and by 17 April, Yugoslavia capitulated, leading to the creation of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). Ante Pavelic, leader of the fascist Ustae organization, was installed as the head of Croatia. His government immediately began a brutal campaign of repression against non-Croatians, especially Serbs. This sparked rebellions, with Serbian Chetnik bands and Croatian communists forming separate guerrilla movements. The Croatian state was soon overwhelmed by these insurgencies. Italy further complicated matters by creating occupation zones within Croatia, supporting Chetnik bands, and hampering Croatian military efforts. The Croatian Army, unable to fortify its territory due to Italian restrictions, was often attacked by Chetniks and forced to fight on two fronts. Despite these challenges, including inadequate armament and the constant interference of its allies, Croatia maintained a military force that continued to fight until the war's bitter end.
In a world defined by the brutalities of war, one German general stands apart from the Hollywood stereotype. Before the storm of the Second World War, Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford, fluent in multiple languages, and a devoted Christian - a lifelong Benedictine Oblate. From the very outset he was anti-Nazi and, on many occasions, defied Hitler's orders. His military skills were good; in France he beat Rommel to Cherbourg and on the Eastern Front he tried to relieve the German 6th Army in Stalingrad. It was in Italy where his reputation grew by safely evacuating German troops from Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, a delicate matter because the Italians had changed sides. He defeated General Clark's forces at the Rapido battle fiasco, and he caused Cassino to become a serious hold up for the Allied advance north. It was he who willingly signed the surrender documents in Italy on 4 May 1945. His Christian beliefs meant there were no barbarities within his command, and he made lifelong friends with some occupied residents, helping to save lives from the dreaded SS, and the Italian partisans never attacked him because he had helped the helpless. He was a brilliant tactician, always with his troops on the frontline, and his anti-Nazi views were not a post-war justification but were widely known during the war years by friend and foe. Von Senger was never even considered for war crimes, and was granted the rare privilege of being allowed to explore the English countryside from the Bridgend PoW camp. Discover the life of a general who fought not just for victory, but for honour, compassion, and morality under the brutal Nazi regime.
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